Dependence of man on the environment Essay

Three experiments were conducted during week two. The first was to determine how many contaminates that we put into our water supply will reach our groundwater. The conclusion that I arrived at was, that there are still large remnants of contaminates in the groundwater supply after it has had a chance to be passed through soil. We emulated this affect by using smaller amounts of contaminates such as oil, vinegar and laundry detergent. Put them in a smaller amounts of water and then passed them though soil. Introduction In the introduction, I will list the problems with our world’s water sources. Contained in the articles written by: The Natural Resources Defense Council. Water. These sources go on to state problems that we are facing as a population with our water quality. Some of these problems are large amounts of water waste, the large cities that are going to face a climate change that will alter their dependence on water. They also note that dirty water is the worldâ€⠄¢s largest health risk and it continues to threaten the quality of life and the public health in the United States. The first problem is that people don’t know how important having clean water is until it’s no longer easily accessible for them. When people become more informed about the problems that we are facing and will face very soon as a society. We can take certain steps to try to prevent it and to ensure our quality of life not only stays the same, but improves. Little can be accomplished by one, but if we work together and try to  conserve and keep our water clean, it can last much longer. The objective of this experiment is relatively simple, to educate on how much we affect our environment by the actions we take and what we can do to improve our habits to ensure that our water supply will last much longer and have good quality. It also has the purpose to let people know that their actions don’t just affect them or only the people that they live around; it also affects the environment and the animals that inhabit it. During the experiment of the Water Quality and Contamination my hypothesis were; The Oil hypothesis was that if there is oil in the surface water then, I think when the water is passed through soil it will be able to filter out the oil before it reaches the groundwater. The hypothesis for the vinegar hypothesis was if there is vinegar in the surface water then, I think that when passed through soil it will still remai n in the groundwater. My laundry detergent hypothesis was if there is laundry detergent in the surface water then, when it is passed through soil it will still have traces of laundry detergent in the groundwater. The next experiment’s hypothesis was that using particular chemicals and methods of filtration, we should be able to remove most of the contaminates that are in the groundwater. This was the experiment that involved different methods of Water Treatment. The final experiment pertained to the drinking water quality and my hypothesis was that tap water will contain the most contaminates because of its path and unknown condition. The bottles of water are in a more sterile environment. The Dasani water is treated and Fiji comes from a natural spring. The treated water (Dasani) will have the least amount of contaminates. Materials and Methods The first experiment that was conducted used soil, different beakers, wooden stir sticks, vegetable oil, vinegar, liquid laundry detergent, water, cheesecloth and funnels. I poured water into each of the first 4 beakers, and then put vegetable oil, vinegar and laundry detergent in respectively. I stirred them with the wooden stir sticks and used the cheesecloth to line the funnel and put soil in and poured each of the different contaminates through, replacing the soil and cheesecloth each time. The second experiment involved beakers, soil, cylinders, sand, charcoal, gravel, wooden stir stick, alum, funnel, cheesecloth, bleach, stopwatch and water. I added  soil to a beaker and put water with the soil and mixed them with two beakers 15 times. I divvied some on the contaminated solution into a new beaker and added alum to it. I stirred the mixture with a wooden stick for 1-2 minutes and then let it sit for 15 minutes. I lined a funnel with cheesecloth and layered sand, charcoal and g ravel into the cheesecloth. I poured the clean tap water through the filter and repeated 4 times. I poured  ¾ of the contaminated water into the funnel and let it filter for 5 minutes. I annotated the smell and compared to the mixture in step 3. I added a few drops of bleach and stirred the combination for 1 minute. I then compared and annotated the now filtered water to the initial contaminated water. The final lab contained Dasani bottled water, Fiji bottled water, Ammonia test stripes, Chloride test strips, 4 in 1 test strip, phosphate test strips, iron test strips, beakers, marker, stopwatch, Parafilm, pipettes, foil packets of reducing powder and tap water. I labeled each of the beakers and poured Dasani, Fiji and tap water in each of the three beakers. I gathered the ammonia test strips and placed in the water and moved them up and down vigorously for 30 seconds each, I held each pad level for 30 seconds to get a reading. I did this 2 more times for each of the beakers. I then retrieved the chloride tes t strips and immersed the reaction zones in each of the three beakers one at a time for 1 second each. I shook off the excess liquid and determined what color the test strip was. I then used the 4 in 1 test strip and dipped in each of the beakers again, one at a time, for 5 seconds and wiggled back and forth. I briskly removed the excess water and waited 20 seconds to read the results. I then used the phosphate test strip by dipping in each of the beakers signally for 5 seconds and then removed and held horizontal for 45 seconds, leaving the excess water on the test strip and recorded the results. Finally, I used the Iron test strip and removed 70 ml of water from each beaker and tested 30 ml of each of the three beakers. I added one foil packet and covered with parafilm and shook the beaker for 15 seconds. I removed and dipped the test pad into the sample and moved it back and forth under the water for 5 seconds. I removed and shook the excess water off and tested and compared 10 seconds later.

Absoulutely True Diary of a Part Time Indian Struggles of Arnold Spirit Essay

In the book â€Å"The Absolutely True Diary of a Part Time Indian† by Sherman Alexie, Arnold Spirit the main character struggles with being an Indian and going to Reardan, the all-white school where he wants to find hope. He struggles with acceptance because of his disability and he is an Indian. He also struggle with losing his best friend Rowdy as a friend, and he also struggles with losing loved ones. Though he has many, he copes with them and fixes them in the end. Throughout the story Arnold struggles with his disability. He is a very smart person but because of his disability his appearance makes him look like he is stupid. To top this all off he is also an Indian attending an all-white school. This causes the white people to make fun of him as well as the Indians and he feels different and unwanted by everyone. â€Å"And once I arrived at Reardan, I became something less than less than less than Indian. Those white kids did not talk to me. They barely looked at me†(83). This shows that he was not accepted on the reservation as an Indian or at Reardan because of what he was. He had no friends at Reardan, not even a friend on the rez anymore. When Arnold decided that he wanted to go to Reardan he wanted his only and best friend, Rowdy to go with him. When he told Rowdy about going to Reardan he felt like Arnold was abandoning him. He got really upset and angry and made it clear they were no longer friends. â€Å"I stayed on the ground for a long time after Rowdy walked away†¦But I had to stand eventually, and when I did, I knew my best friend had become my worst enemy†(53). This shows that Rowdy resented Arnold so much for going to Reardan he didn’t want to be friends with Arnold anymore. In addition to losing his best friend he lost many other people, only in a different way. One final struggle Arnold faced was losing many loved ones. He lost his dog, grandmother, Eugene (His dads best friend) and his sister. He not only blamed himself for the deaths but also many others blamed him because he left the rez and betrayed them in a way by going to Reardan and making friends with white people. â€Å"‘Your sister is dead because you left us. You killed her.’†¦Rowdy was right. I had killed my sister†¦It was all my fault†(211). This shows that Arnold felt like in a way it was his fault and some of the Indians on the rez felt the same. He blamed himself for every bad thing that had happened all his life. Arnold had a tough life, he struggled to fit in, to keep his best friend and with losing many loved ones. Arnold slowly made friends at Reardan by just being himself. In the end he and Rowdy made up. They put the past behind them. Arnold also forgave himself for all the loved ones he lost; he also hoped that everyone else forgave him too. Losing loved ones is a normal part of life. No one should take the blame when it was never their fault. Making friends is also hard Especially when you are in a completely new environment or you are shy. Sometimes best friends will fight. It can last for a short time or a long time. Its important to remember we can not judge someone because of who they are or where they come from. Put yourself in their shoes; how would you feel?

Race Relations Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Race Relations Act - Essay Example To satisfy the huge public outcry the McPherson Inquiry was initiated and in this report several recommendations in order to counter racism were made. Some of these recommendations were to incorporate cultural diversity into the National Curriculum, to check the correlation between school admissions and academic achievement and to assess the success of teachers' activities in these areas. Despite seeming to be related to the statutory education system these recommendations have a very important bearing on the education of adults in respect of racism. The National Neighbourhood Renewal Strategy (2001) has specified that inadequate availability of education, health; employment and housing greatly affect a significant number of people from the minority communities. In 2001, it was estimated that the black and minority communities comprised 8% of the total population of England. In England, fourteen percent of students belong to the black and minority group. Therefore, in education the opportunities made available to the black and minority communities have to be increased significantly. ... viders to make certain that members of the black or minority community are provided with better access to education, employment and training (Increasing participation and raising achievement of black minority group adults in post-16 education, n.d.). The objective of the Race Relations Amendment Act 2000 is to address this problem. It requires the public authorities to reassess their policies and procedures and thereby take such measures as will promote racial equality and get rid of discrimination. It comprises an amendment to the Race Relations Act 1976, which prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, colour, nationality, ethnic or national origin. This Act applies to "Ministers, Central government departments, Local Authorities, regional agencies and enterprise networks, Police authorities, Health authorities, health boards, NHS Trusts and primary care trusts, Education authorities, grant aided and self governing schools, colleges and universities, Communities Scotland, Professional bodies, Libraries, museums and galleries". It empowers individuals or groups to oppose unlawful discrimination by resorting to judicial review. The Commission for Racial Equality is empowered to initiate inquiries, resort to judicial review and issue compliance orders if a public body infringes the Act (The Race Relations Amendment Act 2000, 2002). In the Act these are known as the general duty of public authorities, the specific duties of authorities and the publishing of a race equality scheme, which has to specify as to how it will ensure equal opportunities and good race relations, and as to how it will refrain from racial discrimination (The Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000, 2005). Many people have been barred either directly or indirectly from further education due to

A Trench Fill Foundation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

A Trench Fill Foundation - Assignment Example Since the ground condition has firm clay, therefore there is a need to consider the depth of foundations. Clay exhibits the property to shrink or contract depending on the moisture content present in it (Kenneth, 1993:25). At the same time, if the surrounding area has trees, there is a possibility that the trees would absorb the moisture from the clay and hence, the foundation may experience settlement to a significant level. For this case, it is essential to consider the depth of the foundation. A trench fill foundation is thus ideal for this type of site condition. Research suggests that â€Å"trench fill foundations are quicker to prepare than deep strip foundations. This means that there is less disruption once the building work starts and not as much labour time will be needed. It is less likely that subsidence will occur in cases where there may be changes in the soil's substrata† (Mosley & Bungey, 2000, 48).   The site has different ground conditions and has different soils. Thus, it has a weak bearing capacity. For this purpose, the ideal foundation would be strip, grid or mat foundation. In this case, the suggested foundation is mat foundation. Because of varying ground conditions, majority of the isolated footings would have large areas and thus, it would become uneconomical (Terzaghi et.al, 2006, 256)l. According to the British Code, â€Å"Where the subsoil is very weak the load needs to be spread over a greater area. This is achieved by casting a slab of concrete over the whole ground area and thickening the slab where walls are to be placed†(Perry & Perry, 2009, 118). The design of any reinforced concrete structure aims at a suitable and economical design and for this purpose, mat foundation is ideal. A mat foundation is often used by designers when isolated footings may overlap with one another (Fleming et.al, 2005: 198). A mat foundation is considered to be that type of foundation, which is placed over the entire area. It comprises of reinforced concrete slab, which would be laid over the uneven ground and thus, it would bear the load of the entire structure.   Mat foundation is also ideal for this type of ground condition because of differential settlement. The aim of the mat foundation is to minimize differential settlement (Coduto, 2001, 289). The massive loading of the structure can cause the soil to compress and thus, the structure may experience settlement. For this purpose, the mat is used as an option in order to distribute the entire loads of the buildings and to remove differential settlement.   

Case Analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Analysis - Case Study Example Even more importantly, however, is the fact that a business will face innumerable set-backs, and passion is required to keep up drive in the face of failure. 3. Though this can often lead entrepreneurs down the wrong path, perhaps someone should have thought to ask why no one was monetizing these sporting events in ANY way. Furthermore, if people get to watch professional sports on TV, will they pay for amateur sport commentary? People tend to be very unwilling to pay for media that is usually ad supported. 4. I think that the basic business model of YouCastr was flawed, which means saving it would have taken a basic re-thinking of how things were done. One possibility: monetize through inserting ads in the broadcast, more like other traditional sports media. 1. There are a number of reasons that this company was successful – one of which was certainly a bit of luck – they hit on a formula that people didn’t just like, but loved. They never would have had the chance to get lucky, however, without persistence – persistence that came from a love of what they do. Their love for game making was apparent – doing it first as a hobby, entering into contests, and then making a remarkable 51 relatively unsuccessful games before the launch of angry birds. 2. Part of it is good design – the game features bright, funny characters that are enjoyable to play with, a funny name, and game play that encourages people to play frequently and not put it down. More important, however, is probably that people picked it up and made it go â€Å"viral† – it was at the right place at the right time, and tickled people to the point that they showed their friends. 3. I think that, given something I was enjoying doing, I definitely would have been able to hang in there. The trick is that one must realize that rejection and

Potential Investments in Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Potential Investments in Africa - Essay Example From the discussion it is clear that after globalization of the world economy, entrepreneurs have enlarged their range to the global market. Furthermore, entrepreneurship paired with the ability of globalization is altering the conditions of various regions. In the same way entrepreneurship can work in the interest of Africa as it is further enhanced by a globalized economy.This paper stresses that  Africa is already charming a significant amount of investment from foreign investors in the region. In fact, a study conducted by the AfDB approximates that the continent will fascinate investments of about $85 billion exceeding the figures for the previous year. This is a good sign for people looking to invest in this particular area. This includes investors from Canada who might be interested in becoming part of a growing economy in the world. Even though Africa is a growing economy has not yet counterbalanced the level of poverty in the region, investors are becoming growingly intere sted in investing in the region. There has also been a change in the point of view of Africa from being a provider of raw materials such as coffee beans to a region with a great demand for manufactured goods and services.  Africa has a very big population and has a very great proportion of emerging people belonging to the middle class who are a highly qualified and an educated generation but do not have jobs available or accessible for themselves.

Reflection & Application Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reflection & Application - Essay Example For a given effective conflict there are two kinds of communication that enhance it. This includes unproductive communication and constructive conflict communications. Unproductive conflict communication is seen to be negative; this can hurt individuals, destroy relationship and also can undermine the possibility of resolution. Unproductive conflict communication is well understood in three stages. The early stage, here is the foundation of conflict and it is seen that there is disconfirm between the individuals who are in conflict. At this phase individuals tend to listen poorly as others will be selective as they will be keen on the points they want and ignore the rest. There is a negative climate and both parties assume that their partners are sorry. If Husband say, â€Å"I want us to move into a bigger house this is congested.† The wife reply, â€Å"that’s trash.† This shows that the wife disconfirms his husband view by giving a negative answer. Also we have the middle stage, it’s where the negative climate is already set and it has a lot of interruptions which disrupt the flow of the chat most frequently. The parties start to flashback the past events which they encounter. In this case the Husband may say that the wife is irresponsible she fears more duties and that’s why he found house dusty yet the wife was there not to clean .She also mean in that she fear to spent more in case they move in a bigger house. Lastly we have the later stage there is counterproposals as individuals are seeking to find solutions to the problems and due to limited time and energy each person pushes to have his or her view taken. None wants to accept the others proposal. The Husband proposes, â€Å"May we can get enough accommodation for any visitors who come by,† The wife proposes, â€Å"may the visitors could be accommodated in the servant’s quarters. The constructive conflict communications on the other hand creates supportive,

Psychoanalysis of the Movie Fight Club Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Psychoanalysis of the Fight Club - Movie Review Example He thinks too much too deeply of something that he was not able to sleep for several months - an apparent indication of the disease. Furthermore, the main character was also tired of doing things again and again (as part of his daily working life). Though it doesn't affect other people (i.e. no negative effect of OCD), he considers his life to be weird despite all of what he had and what he had become. He is living in a life that most people have dreamed of. A gallant job in a major automobile company working as a recall coordinator, he had almost everything a man needs which defines him as a person - decent work with decent compensation and he had his luxurious condo which he considers as close-to-being-complete material life. However, it seems like he wasn't satisfied and happy with what he had that he looks for something out of his traditional routine. This is the first turning point in the movie where the narrator thought that support seminars were working out for his insomnia until a woman (Marla Singer) came out from nowhere and ruined his concentration and everything that he is on. Marla would fulfill the narrator's sexual fetish through his unconscious personality (i.e. Tyler). Another turning point of the movie, and an important event as well, was when the narrator had wished that someday he'd wake up a different person in a different place. At this moment, it is his unconscious mind taking over the scene. There is also an apparent underlying principle of choosing Tyler (Brad Pitt) as his "alter ego" or his unconscious being. Deep inside the narrator's unconscious mind is his wish for a well-built physical body that he isn't. At first, meeting Tyler was not the "change" that he is expecting along the way. It was just same other people coming along his way and meant nothing for a change. But as a fateful event shattered his most precious possession (the condo), he turns his interest to his unconscious being (to Tyler). Prior to such incident, he was living in too much care for what he has and what he is, a characteristic inhibited by being too Eros minded. From then on, the main character would eventually be influenced by Tyler's view of life. "Things you own, end up owning you", a particular line uttered by Tyler as he was sharing out his viewpoint of the main character's fateful experience. As they get along with each other, they founded the "fight club", which unconsciously came into his mind after his self-discovery that fighting means freedom that let him out from loneliness. In a way, fight club became an escape for people seeking independence out from their own lives (Oedipal Conflict). Nevertheless, the main character frequently shows struggle and consciousness of what is happening and tries to look back to his proper life. But every time he does so, his unconscious (i.e. Tyler) would get in between persuading him to give up his "flaming worldly possessions". The narrator ends the story in a sensible way. He finally understands the undesirable dominance of his unconscious mind taking over almost his entire decisions. Though his final action and resolution were too late to stop its undesirable effect, he at least finds a solution to end and eliminate his unconscious mind, desire, and personality for good. The fight club movie implies many important things that life has to offer. It helps people

Mountain Man Brewing Co Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mountain Man Brewing Co - Essay Example Mountain Man Lager will have to face the existing competition in new regions. Proven success with the blue-collar customer segment will help in identifying similar customer segment in new regions. Risk of losing or not establishing similar brand image in new markets amidst tough competition. Boost sales of Mountain Man Lager. Risk of not establishing market share as expected. Lack of knowledge of customers’ preferences in new markets. Roping in new distributors in the new regions will be a challenge. Increased distribution and logistics costs. Alternative two: Introduce new product line, Mountain Man Light in existing market targeting younger generations in the Eastern Central region of the US. Pros Cons Attract newer customer segment, which is already looking for products such as light beer. Risk higher costs versus profits initially. Capture diversified market segments through increased product lines. May not earn brand loyalty like MM Lager did, which might further affect b rand image of MM Lager. Improve market share while banking on existing brand image of Mountain Man. Loyalty could be due to Mountain Man Lager rather than MM Light. Disloyalty towards MM Lager by its customer segments. Workload on the smaller sales force. Competition from already existing brands that have better market share. Challenge of distributors’ acceptance of the new product. Huge competition from other companies in terms of variety, costs, and brands. Recommendation: Based on the information and data, better option for improving profitability of MMBC would be to expand their core brand, Mountain Man Lager, into other markets within the US. The Mountain Man Lager had occupied 70% s off-premise sales in East Central Region and almost 60% of blue collar males were the purchasers from these locations (Abelli, 3). To earn such market presence and earning distributors in new regions would be a challenge, for which existing sales force can be mobilized to use their expertise to get more off-premise locations to sell Mountain Man Lager in other states. Establishing similar brand image in new markets can be accomplished by using MMBC’s brand image and history of success to convince new distributors and off-premise owners. Some amount of market research would help in identifying customer preferences in new regions, and promotion of Mountain Man Lager can be focused on such customer segments. Distributors and/or off-premise locations in regions that contain better concentration of the suitable customer segments would be ideal target market for Mountain Man Lager in new regions. Moreover, Mountain Man Lager’s flavor, price, and quality will be able to counter competition from existing brands in new regions. This is because this product already established itself amidst competition from imported and craft beer products in East Central Region (Abelli, 4). Mountain Man Lager can be considered as the defensible strategy for MMBC, which was not cou ntered by other products serving this customer segment in the East Central Region for more than 50 years. In this region, the issue was with increasing customer segments that preferred other beer product categories (light beer), which posed a threat to the

Great Depression and Person Adolf Hitler Essay Example for Free

Great Depression and Person Adolf Hitler Essay â€Å"If you want to shine like sun first you have to burn like it.† The words were rightly said by mankind’s greatest mind and most despised person Adolf Hitler. Many Historians wonder how such a commonplace, comical-looking figure could have become the object of mass hysterical adulation. Many see Hitler as a diabolical adventurer, motivated solely by envy for personal power; he was misunderstood for his mental capabilities. He was not interested in grappling serious, wit profound intellectual problems. Instead, he portrayed himself as a â€Å"great simplifier† who could solve problems and reduce them to elementary slogans and solutions. His success in pulling Germany out of the depression and virtually eliminating unemployment reinforced this view of himself as a great simplifier. This taught me that no matter how big or complex a problem is; a trick is all u need to make it simple enough even for the dull to understand. Hitler precisely said â€Å"Do not compare yourself to others. If you do so, you are insulting yourself.† Because of competition among the major world powers, he felt under confident but then because of sturdy will he was able to overpower them all. Many a times when I feel under confident, just because I am compared to the better people out there, I remember this and get right back on the track. For the first few months He took to the stage, he appeared nervous and spoke haltingly. Slowly he would begin to relax and his style of delivery would change. He would start to rock from side to side and begin to gesticulate with his hands. His voice would get louder and become more passionate. He ranted and raved about the injustices done to Germany and played on his audiences emotions of hatred and envy. By the end of the speech the audience would be in a state of near hysteria and were willing to do whatever Hitler suggested. This gave me the optimism to interact to people of higher status and education level. Speaking in front of huge crowds and in formal organizations is surely nerve-wrecking. But if a man of his altitude can be nervous so why can’t I. Slowly and gradually I gained more confidence. He possessed an unusually retentive memory much like that of an elephant. So he could remember his faults and not repeat it ever again. From this I got encouraged to remember and learn from my mistakes. He saw everything in terms of extremes opposites. People were either his followers or his enemies. War for Germany meant either world power or defeat. My perspective to this was weather give in your 100% or don’t try it. Adolf Hitler was not a power hungry psychopath; rather a patriot who was determined and devoted to work for the country. The man was plainly a nationalist. Just his methods for vengeance were vicious. There are innumerable examples wherein Hitler used his extraordinary power as dictator to push both evil and good policies such as providing cars and radios, making highways making laws for animal integrity. Again, it’s important to keep in mind the ‘yin yang’ concept, when attempting to make sense of such information concerning a person and his achievements. I would like to end with another of Hitler’s saying â€Å"It is not truth that matters, but victory. Because if you win, you need not have to explain..If you lose, you should not be there to explain.†

Crystalline Modifications and Solubility of Prepared Crystal

Crystalline Modifications and Solubility of Prepared Crystal LITERATURE REVIEW Tejal Prajapati et.al., (2010) Investigated different crystal forms of carbamazepine was prepared from various solvents. Crystalline modifications and the solubility of prepared crystals and immediate release tablet dissolution rate profile of carbamazepine studied by using in vitro dissolution studies. These obtained crystal forms of carbamazepine and pure drug was characterized by SEM, FTIR, PXRD and DSC. Highest solubility profile shown by Crystals obtained from ethanol at room temperature and it gave better in vitro dissolution drug release profile than all other forms. Nokhodchi et.al., (2010) Developed ibuprofen crystal forms by using solvent change crystallization technique. Ibuprofen was dissolved in ethanol, and then that solution was crystallized with water in the presence or absence of different types of hydrophilic additives or polymers (like PEG 6000, 8000, Brij 98P and PVA 22000) and using with different concentration ratios. Physico-mechanical properties of Ibuprofen crystals were studied by density, flow property, tensile strength and dissolution behaviour and characterized by SEM, DSC and FT-IR. Ibuprofen crystals crystallized with presence of PEG 6000, 8000 and PVA shown reliable increase in the tensile strengths results of the directly compressed tablets. Talluri chandrashekar et.al., (2010) Developed four different types of Chlorzoxazone polymorphs (Form I, Form II, Form III and Form IV) by using different types of solvents. The obtained polymorphs were characterized by using Optical Microscopy, DSC, XRD and IR spectroscopic methods. From the studies it was revealed that the Form I, Form II shown higher solubility rate profile than Form III, Form IV and pure drug. Rajesh A. Keraliya et.al., (2010) Investigated 14 pure good solvents were selected for the crystallization of tolbutamide. Crystals were obtained in only 10 solvents out of the all 14 solvents. These developed Crystal forms were characterized by using differential scanning calorimetry, optical microscopy, and in vitro dissolution study. Differential scanning calorimetry study shown all types of crystals were determined as isomorphic. Crystal forms of tolbutamide gave different dissolution rates. Cheng-Hung Hsu et.al., (2010) Studied transformation of different gabapentin polymorphs forms. Four types of gabapentin polymorphs were developed and these are characterized by using DSC, TGA, FTIR Microspectroscopy and X-ray powder diffractometry. A one-step novel hot-stage FTIR microspectroscopy was successfully applied to progressive processes of polymorphic forms transformation of prepared crystals. Gen Hasegawa et.al., (2009) Prepared different types of tolbutamide polymorphs and thermodynamic stability was characterized by using calorimetry and spectroscopic analysis. Forms I-III The heat of solutions (à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H) measurements were observed in solvent of dimethylsulfoxide between 298.2K and 319.2 K. Solubility data also observed and then confirmed the change in à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬  H of Form I around 308.2 K. XRD, DSC measurements of Form I characterized as a polymorphic transformation was observed at 311K. The crystal forms structure of the Form I was determined by using PXRD pattern, and solid-state NMR spectrum confirmed the transformations occurred in the prepared crystal form structure of tolbutamide Form I. Roya Talari et.al., (2009) Investigated Gliclazide was recrystallized and developed polymorphs with 12 different types stabilizers and each stabilizer gives effect on micromeritic behaviors, microcrystals morphology, dissolution rate profile and recrystallized gliclazide solid state were studied. Recrystallized samples showed faster dissolution rate than gliclazide pure drug and the fastest dissolution rate profile was observed the samples recrystallized with PEG 1500 stabilizer. XRPD and DSC results confirmed that crystallization of gliclazide forms with stabilizers reduced the crystallinity of the samples. Renu Chadha et.al., (2009) Prepared five different crystal forms of methotrexate and Characterized by using XRPD and DSC. Desolvation endotherm was determined by the DSC. In I, II, IV and V crystal forms mass losses were observed in TGA and shown these forms are acetonitrile solvate hydrate, dimethylformamide solvate and trihydrate (I, V, II and IV) respectively. Desolvation peak was not observed in Prepared from methanol crystal form (form III) and that indicates the absence of solvent of crystallization. This form III was shown partially crystalline pattern by its XRPD. All prepared forms the dissolution and solubility rate profiles were correlated with enthalpy of solution and subsequently to the crystallinity of all four forms of methotrexate; and crystal form III shown highest dissolution rate than other prepared forms. Mange Ram Yadav et.al., (2008) Developed five different types of crystal forms of Pefloxacin by using with different solvents of varying polarities, and the dissolution kinetics of five polymorphs was observed. That reveled these polymorphs differed in their dissolution rate profiles and all polymorphs shown unusual behavior in highest dissolution rate profile at the end of 15 min after that some what similar dissolution rate. Finally got constant dissolution release values after 4 hrs. Shan-Yang Lin et.al., (2007) Investigated two polymorphic forms A B of famotidine. It describes famotidine polymorphic transition may produce by the grinding or compression process in ground mixtures or compressed compacts in tabletting process time. The synergistic effect of temperature on the grinding or compression process was also investigated. In the ground mixtures, famotidine polymorphic transition was characterized by confocal Raman Microspectroscopy, DSC. Mechanical forces, which are grinding and compression, are having effect on polymorphic transformation of Famotidine. Ilma Nugrahani et.al., (2007) Evaluated amoxicillin trihydrate and potassium solid state interaction. The solid state interaction was characterized by using DSC, XRPD, FTIR and SEM. Different compositions of amoxicillin trihydrate and potassium clavulanate were developed in ten different molar ratios and characterized by DSC to get the thermal profile and a phase diagram of composition. Binary systems thermo profile obtained by DSC analysis that endothermic curves of molar ratios of 1:9-5:5 overlapped at 201 °C. the molar fraction ratio of 5:5 shown the loss of hydrate spectra in amoxicillin trihydrate characterized by FTIR spectrum of binary system. We conclude co-crystal system produced by the strong hydrogen bonding interaction between hydrates of amoxicillin and potassium clavulanate. Cristina Puigjaner et.al., (2007) Investigated new polymorphic forms A, B C of Norfloxacin. These polymorphs forms were characterized by different methods like powder X-ray diffraction, Vibrational spectroscopy (IR and Raman), thermal analysis (DSC and TG), SEM and solid-state NMR spectroscopy. The data show an enantiotropic relationship between A C forms, as well as a monotropic relationship between B C. C.G. Kontoyannis et.al., (2007) Reported Risperidone polymorphic forms of film coated commercial tablets and characterized by using IR spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy and X-ray powder diffraction. This Risperidone polymorph stability was examined through time and during the manufacturing process. The inability of IR and Raman techniques to identify the presence of polymorph A in the tablets. Form A was proved to be stable during the manufacturing process time and after the storage period of 2 years. Wang Jingkang et.al., (2007) Reported crystal habit of 11ÃŽÂ ±-hydroxy-16ÃŽÂ ±, 17ÃŽÂ ±-epoxyprogesterone (HEP) grown from solution by the effects of solvent and impurity were characterized by using SEM. Long prismatic crystals were formed from crystallization of HEP in pure acetone and N, N-dimethylformamide. Blocky crystals were resulted with pure chloroform by using cooling crystallization method. These HEP crystals were greatly modified from prismatic to octahedral shape. That the change of crystal habit was brought from the modification of crystal structure by DSC and X-ray powder diffraction. Piera Di Martino et.al., (2007) Reported crystal forms of nimesulide prepared by crystallizing from an ethanol solution and dioxane, different from the pure drug nimesulide reference sample, it was characterized by using XRPD, DSC and solid cross polarization-magic angle spinning NMR. Dioxane nimesulide forms are solvate. The polymorphic form prepared by desolvation of dioxane solvate gave positive effect on nimesulide forms tableting properties increasing the both compressibility and tabletability. Joao Canotilho et.al., (2007) Prepared crystalline forms of atenolol from evaporation of an ethanol/water solution. (R, S)-Atenolol crystallizes in the centrosymmetric and S-atenolol crystallizes in a noncentrosymmetric space group C2/c and space group C2 respectively. One symmetry and two symmetry independent molecule in (R, S)-atenolol crystals and molecules in S-atenolol respectively. (R, S)-atenolol shown two different molecular conformations and three different conformations were isolated in S-atenolol.. The molecular conformations characterized by X-ray diffraction method were fully relaxed at the HF/6-31G* level of theory. Reddy et.al., (2005) Investigated a novel crystalline form of cetirizine monohydrochloride was prepared. These prepared crystalline forms of cetirizine monohydrochloride were characterized by using x-ray diffraction pattern, differential scanning calorimetry. Kati Pollanen et.al., (2005) Prepared polymorphic forms of sulfathiazole. These polymorphic forms composition of bulk product samples characterized by diffuse reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy together with multivariate statistical process control analysis, soft independent modeling of class analogy, orthogonal signal correction preprocessing and partial least squares regression methods. Ali Arslantas et.al., (2005) Investigated L-ascorbic acid polymorphs considered as eight space groups and assuming one molecule in the asymmetric unit. Including with the experimental structure and number of possible crystal structures were found. By removing space-group symmetry constraints, the number of hypothetical crystal structures was reduced. Schmidt et.al., (2005) Reported Benzocaine (BZC), butambene (BTN) and isobutambene (BTI) are ester type basic local anaesthetic agents. These are exist in two polymorphic crystal forms and characterized by thermomicroscopy, DSC, FTIR, FT-Raman-spectroscopy and XRPD. The endothermic transformation of mod. I0 at ambient conditions thermodynamically stable (heat of transition rule). Whereas mod. II and mod.I0 enantiotropic in nature and mod.II is metastable at temperatures. At room temperature the metastable forms show different kinetic stabilities. Vijayavitthal T Mathad et.al., (2005) Prepared six polymorphs of donepezil hydro bromide from different types of solvents, and these polymorphs physical properties are characterized by PXRD, DSC, TGA, IR spectroscopy and Karl Fischer techniques. It reveled one is crystalline hydrate , four are anhydrous polymorphs and one is amorphous form. Arvind k. Bansal et.al., (2004) Studied clopidogrel bisulphate polymorphic form I and form II. Obtained polymorphs were characterized by Thermal (DSC, TGA, HSM), crystallographic (XRD) and spectroscopic (FTIR) methods. Differences in their spectral patterns were successfully utilized for the quantification of forms I and II in powder mixtures. The forms undergo no transformations and exhibit no crystal defect generation when exposed to pressure during the KBr pellet formation. FTIR method was successfully characterized and validated for the quantification of prepared clopidogrel bisulphate polymorph form I in polymorph mixtures. David J. W. Grant et.al., (2004) Reported two polymorphic forms of s Piroxicam. The difference in energy of the two polymorphs, I and II, of Piroxicam arises predominantly from the difference between their lattice energies, rather than between their conformational energies. A loss of polymorphic memory was observed upon cryogrinding, the two polymorphs are leading to differences in their recrystallization behavior between Piroxicam amorphous prepared in polymorphs I and II.di Young-Taek Sohn and Hyun Ok Seo et.al., (2004) Developed four types of crystal forms of ketorolac by recrystallization from various organic solvents under variable conditions. Different types of ketorolac polymorphs and pseudopolymorphs were characterized by XRPD, DSC, and thermogravimetric analysis. All four crystal forms showed different types of dissolution studies in water at 37 ±0.5oC. Form I shown the highest solubility. Polymorphic forms of Form I and Form III shown good physical stability at room temperature for 60 days. After 60 days storage Form IV is converted to Form I and Form II is converted to Form III. Sari Airaksinen et.al., (2004) Investigated two polymorphic forms of theophylline monohydrate. Theophylline monohydrate transforms either stable (form I), or metastable (form Ià ¢Ã‹â€ -) form of anhydrous theophylline during the drying phase of wet granulation method. Amounts of the different theophylline crystalline forms remaining in the form of dried granules were characterized by using XRPD and near-infrared spectroscopy. It conclude the Metastable anhydrous theophylline was the major form that was produced at drying temperatures of 40-50 à ¢- ¦C with both MMFD and VT-XRPD drying techniques. Mahua Sarkar et.al., (2008) Developed nevirapine polymorphic forms from different types solvents under various conditions by crystallization. These forms solid-state behavior was characterized by using variety of complementary techniques such as microscopy (optical, polarized, hot stage microscopy), DSC, TGA, FT-IR and powder X-ray diffractometry. Nevirapine forms crystallized from varying polarities and yielded different crystal habits. The recrystallized sample intrinsic dissolution rate of was lower than the commercial sample. Nevirapine Amorphous form shown slightly higher aqueous solubility than commercial sample. Makoto Otsuka Fumie kato et.al., (2003) Investigated indomethacin polymorphic content in mixed pharmaceutical powder and tablets by using rapid chemometrical near-infrared spectroscopy. Polymorphic contents of forms ÃŽÂ ± and ÃŽÂ ³ were obtained from physical mixing of IMC standard polymorphic sample 50% and excipient mixed powder sample consisting of lactose, corn starch, and hydroxypropyl-cellulose 50% in Mixed powder samples. 6 kinds of standard materials with various polymorphic contents were characterized by using X-ray powder diffraction profiles and NIR spectra. more accurate quantitative analysis of polymorphic content provided by NIR spectroscopy in pharmaceutical mixed powder and tablets. Sabiruddin Mirza et.al., (2003) Developed crystal forms erythromycin with various organic solvents, (acetone, methylethylketone, ethanol, and isopropanol) both in the presence and in the absence of water on the crystallization. It was observed that pure organic solvent or water-organic 1:9 or 1:1 solvent mixtures are solvate. However, the recrystallization of erythromycin from 2:1 water-organic solvent mixture gives crystal hydrate form. that the loss of volatiles by all the solvated crystals is nonstoichiometric showed by Thermo-gravimetric analysis. The solvates with the organic solvents desolvation behavior of characterized by variable-temperature x-ray powder diffraction. R. Fausto et.al., (2003) an amorphous state produced by Fast cooling rates that, on more heating, that crystallizes into metastable polymorph. At higher temperatures, this metastable crystalline form converts into the stable crystal form. Cooling rates is intermediate produce 3AP crystallizes as the metastable polymorph, the solid l solid transition occurring on heating and this form into the stable polymorph. cooling rate is Slower enable formation of the stable crystal on cooling. The two crystalline polymorphs were characterized by using powder X-ray diffraction and Raman spectroscopy. It concluded that different types of conformations are assumed by the individual molecules of 3AP in two crystalline forms. Amy J. Harshaw et.al.,(2003) Examined four polymorphic crystalline forms sulfathiazole exist in solvents used n-propanol, acetone/chloroform, water. These forms were characterized by using differential thermal calorimetry and solubility studies and these are recrystallizing under the various conditions as a function of temperature. The best polymorph formation was found in the hot water sample. Adam J. Matzger et.al., (2002) Developed new polymorph crystal structure of nabumetone. Energy differences gives weak forces, these weak forces play such an important role in the kinetic and thermodynamic stabilization of nabumetone polymorphs Judith Maria Rollinger et.al., (2002) Prepared three crystal forms of torasemide from various types of organic solvents. These forms Physicochemical properties were characterized by using thermoanalysis (hot-stage microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetry), Fourier transform infra-red and Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray powder diffractometry. The hygroscopicity, relative stability, true density, and heat of solutions were determined. The dissolution behaviour of mod. I and II was investigated as a function of pH, temperature, and in addition to surfactants. S. Agatonovic-Kustrin et.al., (2001) Developed two polymorphic forms 1 and 2 of ranitidine HCl. This polymorphic purity of crystalline ranitidine HCl characterized by using solid-state techniques, diffuse reflectance FT-IR and XRPD were combined. The ranitidine HCl polymorphs and quantify the composition of binary mixtures of the two polymorphs clearly distinguished by DRIFTS combined with XRPD Successfully. A.R. Rajabi-Siahboomi et.al., (2001) Investigated crystal form of Ibuprofen was obtained from various solvents like methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, and hexane. The crystal forms of ibuprofen were crystallized from methanol and ethanol gave polyhedral crystal habit, while hexane was given needlelike, isopropanol was shown elongated crystals. XPD and DSC studies results are these samples were structurally similar; the results shown that crystal habit modification of prepared crystals have a great influence on the mechanical properties (compressibility, flow rate, and bulk density) of obtained ibuprofen crystals. John Bauer et.al., (2001) Prepared Ritonavir polymorphs from various solvents characterized by using solid state spectroscopy and microscopy techniques, solid state NMR, NIR, PXRD and Single crystal X-ray. A strong hydrogen bonding network gives an unusual conformation for form II. Ritonavir was found to be exhibit two unique crystal lattices conformational polymorphism. Which are having different solubility properties. Although the polymorph (form II) belongs to the cis confirmations it is a more stable packing arrangement, nucleation. Changquan Sun and David J. W. Grant et.al., (2001) Reported bulk powders of sulfamerazine polymorph I and two different particle size of polymorph II , II(A) and II(B) were crystallized. The powders were compressed to form tablets whose porosity and tensile strength were measured and then analysed. The tabletability, follows this order, I >> II(A) > II(B) and the compressibility, follows the order, I Malamataris et.al., (2000) Prepared crystalline form of glibenclamide, with higher melting point (218 °C) and having lower solubility in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids, these are changed by transitional phases by melting, cooling and reheating. The new form of glibenclamide was obtained from the glassy state, by applying sublimation temperature at 130-160 °C. New form of glibenclamide was characterized by DSC, FT-IR, SEM, hot-stage microscopy, PXRD and solubility studies. Yumiko Kobayashi et.al., (2000) Developed polymorphs of carbamazepine and studied pseudopolymorphs (form I, form III and dihydrate) dissolution behaviors and bioavailability. The solubilities of both anhydrates (form I and form III), evaluated from the initial dissolution rate profile of each anhydrates were 1.5-1.6 times dihydrate. Gamberini et.al., (2000) Prepared three different carbamazepine polymorphic forms. Polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism can give affect on bioavailability and effective clinical use. These prepared polymorphs characterized by FT-IR spectroscopy, XRPD, DSC, Hot Stage FT-IR thermomicroscopy. The obtained three different polymorphic forms are anhydrous carbamazepine: Form III, the commercial one, Form I. Young-Taek Sohn et.al., (2000) Recognized physicochemical properties of drugs affected by the type of crystalline form of the drugs. Clarithromycin gave three polymorphic crystalline forms. New method involved to simple recrystallization of clarithromycin in different solvents like hexane, heptane or ethers, isopropyl ether. These polymorphs are compared by using DSC, XRPD with form II crystal prepared by conventional method. It indicated that improvement in the purity of the Clarithromycin polymorph form II crystal. Robert E. Dinnebier et.al., (2000) Detected three crystalline modifications (A, B, and C) and these crystal structures were characterized by using single-crystal X-ray diffraction (pseudopolymorph C) and the method of simulated annealing from high-resolution X-ray powder diffraction data and IR. Obtained crystal packing and the molecular conformation of telmisartan Demonstrating the medium-sized (MW  » 500) pharmaceutical compounds can now be solved quickly and routinely by using high-resolution X-ray powder diffraction data. MartÄ ±nez-Oharriz et.al., (1999) Investigated the physico-chemical characteristics of diflunisal-PEG 4000 solid dispersions prepared by melting, solvent and melting-solvent methods. Solvents are chloroform, methanol and ethanol-water. The drug present in different polymorphic forms. The characterization of solid dispersions was performed by X-ray powder diffraction. In solid systems obtained by the solvent and melting solvent methods and the drug solidifies in form III in ethanol / water and methanol, while polymorph IV crystallized in chloroform. In conclusion it reveled that changes in diflunisal polymorphic forms occurred during the formation of solid dispersion. Polymorphic form of drug determined by drug polymer ratio and method of preparation. Shivakumar et.al., (1999) Prepared different types of crystal and paracetmol crystals and the effect of solvents on the crystallization were characterized by using FT-IR, DSC and Powder XRD patterns. The results indicate that crystals prepared from different types of solvents exhibited different physicochemical properties. Desired physicochemical properties of crystals may be obtained by selecting the different types solvents by depending on the solubility profile of drug. Y.E. Hammouda et.al., (1999) Reported sulphadiazine (SD) a suspension of the drug in a preselected solvent (5% aqueous ammonia solution) was stirred under controlled conditions. The solvent was subsequently removed and the material dried. The effect of experimental variables such as stirring speed and time, powder/ solvent ratio and inclusion of additives (Tween 80, sodium chloride and PVP) on the properties of solvent treated SD was assessed. Data obtained were compared with those for SD recrystallized under identical conditions. Solvent treatment of SD in the absence of additives resulted in a limited change in crystal morphology as indicated by SEM. This was associated with improved flowability and a limited reduction in dissolution rate relative to untreated SD. On the other hand, recrystallized SD exhibited superior flowability but a considerably low dissolution rate. Solvent treatment of SD in the presence of 2% PVP produced a microgranular directly compressible material. Monica Bartolomei et.al., (1999) Prepared two forms of propranolol HCl and investigated the crystallization conditions and the physicochemical properties of the two polymorphs I and I. these are characterized by using FTIR spectroscopy, PXRD, thermal analysis, solubility and dissolution studies. Their stability test was followed at room temperature over a period of 1 year time and using under different conditions of temperature, grinding and compression to verify the capacity to solid-solid transition and to study the existence range of the two forms. These obtained results shown that form I was having less thermodynamically stable and more soluble and dissolved faster than crystalline form II. Ranendra N. Saha, K.Venugopal, New, et. al., (2005) Developed for the estimation of Gatifloxacin in bulk and pharmaceutical formulations UV-spectrophotometric methods were used. Gatifloxacin was estimated at 286 nm in 100 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and 292 nm in 100 mM hydrochloric acid (pH 1.2). Linearity range was found to be 1-18 ÃŽÂ ¼g ml-1, in the phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) and 1-14 ÃŽÂ ¼g ml-1 in hydrochloric acid medium (pH 1.2). These methods were tested and validated for various parameters according to ICH guidelines and USP. These methods were successfully estimated for the determination of Gatifloxacin in pharmaceutical formulations. Carolina B. Romanuk et.al., Reported two different types of polymorphic forms of new ciprofloxacin saccharinate. These two poymorphs were characterized and determine both polymorphic forms we used solid state techniques: powder X-ray diffraction, single crystal X-ray diffraction, Infrared and Solid State NMR. V. Agafonov et.al., (1991) Developed single crystals of two polymorphic and four solvated crystalline forms of spironolactone from different types solvents. All crystal forms except for the one obtained from methanol, morphology, symmetry, and crystallographic parameters were determined. The stability of crystals and transformation of each type of crystal were characterized by using DSC, TGA, and X-ray diffraction analysis. It conclude molecules of spironolactone in the three different types of lattices. Masato OHTA et.al., (1999) Investigated, heat of crystallization and heat of solution cefditoren pivoxil of different crystallinity were characterized by DSC and isothermal microcalorimetry, respectively. Cefditoren pivoxil heat of crystallization and heat of solution shown good linear correlation with the degree of crystallinity determined by Rulands method by using powder X-ray diffractogram. The crystallinity changes of amorphous cefditoren pivoxil by adsorption of alcohol vapor could be evaluated for small quantity of sample by using of heat of crystallization. microcalorimetry was used to found prediction of dissolution behavior. El-Sayed et.al., (1983) Developed four polymorphic forms of spironolactone. These crystal forms characterized by using melting point and aqueous solubility, IR, DTA, PXRD and powder dissolution. Prepared Crystals with ethyl acetate showed the lowest melting range and having highest dissolution, while prepared crystal from acetonitrile shown the highest melting range and shown low dissolution rate. Infrared spectra were not useful in clearly distinguishing between the different forms. DTA curves indicated that were different from the original form of the drug. X-ray patterns were different in intensities of radiation absorption and finally it confirming the presence of four different types of crystalline forms of spironolactone. Robert E. Dinnebier et.al., (2000) Investigated Three crystalline forms A, B, and C of telmisartan and their polymorphs crystal structures characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Explanation of the crystal packing and the molecular conformation of medium-sized (MW à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€  500) pharmaceutical ingredients can now determined by high-resolution X-ray powder diffraction data. J.M. Delgado et.al., (2007) Prepared several polymorphs of oxytetracycline hydrochloride under different conditions by crystallization: different conditions are slow evaporation, rapid crystallization, and vapour diffusion in different types of solvents. The solvents are used included like water, ethanol, methanol, ether, ethyl acetate, toluene, dichloromethane and dioxane. The obtained different polymorphs products were characterized by X-Ray Powder Diffraction, NMR, FT-IR, and Thermal Analysis (TGA and DSC). Biserka Cetina-Cizmek et.al., (2003) Developed piroxicam benzoate Solid-state properties and Investigated. piroxicam benzoate Samples were prepared by recrystallization from different types organic solvents (toluene, ethanol, methanol, ethyl acetate and acetone). Prepared samples were characterized by using FTIR, DSC, TGA, SEM and XRPD. DSC, TGA and XRPD. These are confirmed that piroxicam benzoate crystallized in two types of pseudopolymorphic forms A and B. Pseudopolymorphic form A was obtained by recrystallization in ethanol and methanol by slow cooling at ambient temperature and by rapid cooling in an ice-cold bath. Pseudopolymorphic form B was obtained by recrystallization from toluene by slow cooling at room temperature and also from toluene by rapid cooling in an ice cold bath. Arvind K. Bansal et.al., (2003) Studied generation and characterization of various solid-state forms of celecoxib, The Celecoxib drug was subjected to polymorphic screen using various types of organic solvents to exhausts the possibility of existence of different solid forms. 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of N,N-Dimethyl acetamide (DMA) and N,N-dimethyl formamide (DMF) gave solvates. Quench cooling of the melt resulted in amorphous form of the drug. All these solid-state forms were analszed by thermoanalytical (DSC, TGA, HSM), crystallographic (XRD), microscopic (polarized, SEM), spectroscopic (FTIR), and elemental analysis techniques. Morphology Influences on flow behavior of different solid-state forms was also investigated. Marcelo Antonio Oliveira et.al., (2010) Reported that the TGA and DSC are very useful for characterizing the drug and excipients stability. Verapamil hydrochloride shown thermal stability up to 180  °C and melts at 146  °C. Evaluated the Verapamil hydrochloride drug is compatible with all other excipients. The drug shown degradation when exposed to oxidizing conditions, that the degradation product resulting is 3,4-dimethoxybenzoic acid derived from the alkyl side chain oxidation. Alok Tripathi et.al., (2010) Developed ten crystalline polymorphic forms along with an amorphous form of Rabeprazole sodium. Polymorphism is gives solid physical properties they are influence on biological activity of drug, physiochemical properties of drug or substance industrial manufacturing method. Researchers attracted towards new polymorphic form of Rabeprazole sodium. Some polymorphic correlation parameters such as type of the solvent, , sequence of addition, temperature, volume of the solvent, rate of the agitation, pH of reaction mixture etc. showing effect on the polymorphism. Kalinkova et.al., (1996) Investigated polymorphism of azlocillin sodium. Results of infrared spectroscopy, thermal analysis (combined thermogravimetry and differential analysis) and scanning electron microscopy confirmed recrystallization of lyophilized azlocillin sodium from simple solvent acetonitrile causes polymorphic transformation. New polymorph obtained by crystalline form. C. Rodriguez-espinosa et.al., (1994) Investigated polymorphism crystal forms of I, II, and III forms and new crystal form (form IV ) of diflunisal and these forms characterized by using powder X-ray diffractometry, DSC, hot-stage microscopy, IR spectroscopy, and dissolution studies. The mutual transition behavior of the prepared polymorphs was determined and the melting points and melting enthalpies were charac

The Effect of Full House on My Life Essay -- Sitcom Television Compare

The Effect of Full House on My Life When I look back at my childhood, I see it as a highly colored, exaggerated version of what it must have been. Everything seems brighter, and bigger than reality allows. It’s the ideal â€Å"child’s world,† full of Barbies, dress-up, and playgrounds. But, if I try hard enough, I can remember the feeling of being there. The feeling of being small, and nearly innocent. Most of the time when I think of my childhood, I look back on two specific years, kindergarten and first grade, and the summers before and after the two. Both of these took place in Schaumburg, Illinois, in a two-bedroom town-home that I still call â€Å"my old house† even though it’s not that anymore. I’m not sure if these are the years I simply remember the best, or if that was actually the time I felt most like a child. I had many friends, and we had plenty of time to play games and use our imaginations. Nevertheless, I don’t usually reminisce about the shows and movies that I used to watch, and certainly not how these things affected me growing up. When prompted, however, I can remember specifics. I even begin to see how visual texts, like The Little Mermaid and Full House, have influenced me throughout my life and especially in my childhood. I have felt the impact of these things in my life as recently as this year, and I can see not only how the shows I watched influenced my behavior, but also that I chose to watch shows and movies that I thought were representative of me. The show I remember watching most is definitely Full House. I mean, I thought I was D.J. Tanner. I had exact replicas of some of her outfits (like the blue, polka-dot blouse and pants set), and I was constantly asking to have my hair blown out just like hers.... ...less impossible. Full House, The Little Mermaid, and Under the Tuscan Sun all held examples, and lessons that I have often applied to my own life. Whether I was looking up to straight-laced D.J. Tanner, or the mischievous mermaid named Ariel, these visual texts have been an important influence on my life. All were things to aspire, and look forward to. The things I watched on TV. and in movies as a child definitely helped to shape my personality and views on life. Equally important are more recent movies and experiences that I can relate to my childhood favorites. Whether I’m looking back to my past in Schaumburg, or remembering moments as recent as last summer, by analyzing what it is I like about specific visual texts, I can learn a lot about myself. They are all representative of the kind of person I am, and the kind of person that I have always wanted to be. The Effect of Full House on My Life Essay -- Sitcom Television Compare The Effect of Full House on My Life When I look back at my childhood, I see it as a highly colored, exaggerated version of what it must have been. Everything seems brighter, and bigger than reality allows. It’s the ideal â€Å"child’s world,† full of Barbies, dress-up, and playgrounds. But, if I try hard enough, I can remember the feeling of being there. The feeling of being small, and nearly innocent. Most of the time when I think of my childhood, I look back on two specific years, kindergarten and first grade, and the summers before and after the two. Both of these took place in Schaumburg, Illinois, in a two-bedroom town-home that I still call â€Å"my old house† even though it’s not that anymore. I’m not sure if these are the years I simply remember the best, or if that was actually the time I felt most like a child. I had many friends, and we had plenty of time to play games and use our imaginations. Nevertheless, I don’t usually reminisce about the shows and movies that I used to watch, and certainly not how these things affected me growing up. When prompted, however, I can remember specifics. I even begin to see how visual texts, like The Little Mermaid and Full House, have influenced me throughout my life and especially in my childhood. I have felt the impact of these things in my life as recently as this year, and I can see not only how the shows I watched influenced my behavior, but also that I chose to watch shows and movies that I thought were representative of me. The show I remember watching most is definitely Full House. I mean, I thought I was D.J. Tanner. I had exact replicas of some of her outfits (like the blue, polka-dot blouse and pants set), and I was constantly asking to have my hair blown out just like hers.... ...less impossible. Full House, The Little Mermaid, and Under the Tuscan Sun all held examples, and lessons that I have often applied to my own life. Whether I was looking up to straight-laced D.J. Tanner, or the mischievous mermaid named Ariel, these visual texts have been an important influence on my life. All were things to aspire, and look forward to. The things I watched on TV. and in movies as a child definitely helped to shape my personality and views on life. Equally important are more recent movies and experiences that I can relate to my childhood favorites. Whether I’m looking back to my past in Schaumburg, or remembering moments as recent as last summer, by analyzing what it is I like about specific visual texts, I can learn a lot about myself. They are all representative of the kind of person I am, and the kind of person that I have always wanted to be.

Running Training Essay -- Compare Contrast Papers

Running Training For the past several years runners all over the world have been trying to figure out and arguing over the simple question: â€Å"Is high mileage training better than low mileage, during training season?† Kenyan’s in Africa have been running unbelievable amounts of mileage for years, and tend to always be in the top field in any race over five thousand meters. While Africans have been leading the fields for years, where do the best US runners end up? Not in the lead pack! Perhaps they are training too hard to be like their Kenyan counterparts. I think a lot of runners believe that if they train like the runners from Kenya that they will have the same results. When in truth they end up running themselves into the ground. Perhaps that is why there are others that think that if they train light and more to their athletic ability level that they will have better results. Many runners think that less mileage is better for a runner during training season, as does George Sheehan who wrote the essay titled â€Å"Training: More or Less.† In his essay he claims that he believes the optimal distance for athletes is twenty to twenty-five miles per week, including speed work, and races. While his theory on training might be correct for his level of training, it may not be sufficient for other runners who are serious about training with all they have. Many believe that in order to get better they must put in the miles on the road, which will get their legs used to the stress put on their muscles and feet during the course of a race. As a distance runner for the Buena Vista University Cross Country and Track team, in Storm Lake, Iowa, my experience with low mileage training and high mileage training came out wit... ... further distances. Runners are entitled to their own opinion, because everybody’s bodies are different and are more fit for running different levels of mileage. While those runners are training with low mileage, others who are against running low mileage because they believe that getting the body used to running further distances will improve their running. The above research gave plenty of examples of how there is a rebuttal going on where some runners believe that less training means more output, as well as how some believe that more training means more output. Examples are given throughout the paper to support both ideas. Works Cited Hage, Jim. When Less Really is Less. 15 Apr. 2002 . Sheehan, George. Training: More or Less. 1991. 15 Apr. 2002 .

Social Affects on Neurobehavior Essay -- Biology Essays Research Paper

Social Affects on Neurobehavior "The brain does not exist in isolation but rather is a fundamental, interacting component of a developing, aging individual who is a single actor in the larger theater of life. This theater is undeniably social. . ." (1) For the past few weeks our class discussions have largely hinged on brain and neuron function and how this relates to behavior. Some students in the class have expressed a difficulty with the concept that brain equals behavior because they feel like this limits their individuality and choice if they are only a combination of inputs and outputs. As a student of the social sciences I question this thinking because behavior is not just limited by brain function but also by social constraints. People's actions are limited by values, norms and mores found in their respective environment. In my web research, and with help from Dr. Grobstein, I found a few sites dedicated to what is called 'Social Neuroscience' and some studies that have been done to show that in animals and humans social influences can have a direct effect on biological function from the release of certain chemicals to actual changes in receptors. The first site is run by Ohio State and tells the history of social neuroscience and looks at social factors and the immune system. The second is run by a professor in the United Kingdom looking at diet and criminality and the last is from Georgia State and looks at social status and defense mechanisms in crayfish. William James an American psychologist of the 19th century was one of the first people to state that there is a connection between neurophysiological processes and psychological phenomena (1). In 1992 John Cacioppo and Gary Bernstein determined that t... ... responsiveness even when the crayfish becomes the subordinate. So a change in the social status of the crayfish causes changes in the receptors for seratonin in the nervous system of the crayfish. This is a striking example of the social environment causing direct changes in the nervous system. As more and more research in this area develops, I am sure we will see an even stronger connection between social environment and the development and functioning of the nervous system and maybe gain more insight into why people behave the way they do. WWW Sources 1)Ohio State Social Neuroscience Laboratory http://www.acs.ohio-state.edu/units/psych/s-psych/socnelab.htm 2)Crime and Nourishment http://mhnet.org/perspectives/articles/art03964.htm 3)Research: The Neural Bases of Behavior, (very interesting picture of the LG neuron) http://www2.gsu.edu/~biodhe/

Old-Age Pension Reform in China

-aAvailable online at www. sciencedirect. com Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74 – 87 www. elsevier. com/locate/jaging Old-age pension reform and modernization pathways: Lessons for China from Latin America Esteban Calvo ? , John B. Williamson Department of Sociology and Center for Retirement Research, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467 USA Received 31 July 2006; received in revised form 26 January 2007; accepted 26 February 2007Abstract While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, next economic modernization, and then faced the challenges of population aging and pension policy reform, both Latin America and China, in contrast, are dealing with these challenges in the context of much less developed economies and stronger traditional cultures. In this article we analyze old-age pension reform efforts in eight Latin American countries that have introduced funded defined contribution schemes with individual accounts.We are searching for ins ights about the potential success of similar reforms being implemented in China. All of these societies are organized primarily around the principles of family, reciprocity, loyalty and poverty. Our analysis suggests that these distinctive characteristics have important implications for the likely success of the reforms currently being implemented in China, particularly in four interrelated areas: coverage, compliance, transparency, and fiscal stability.  © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Keywords: Pension reform; China; Latin America; Social Security; Culture; Economy; Rationalization . Introduction Latin America is a pioneer with respect to the shift from old-age pension schemes based on pay-as-you-go (PAYG) defined benefit models to schemes based all or in part on funded individual accounts. In 1981 Chile became the first nation to make the shift with the introduction of mandatory fully-funded privately managed individual retirement accounts (IRAs). Today there are 12 L atin American countries that have shifted to schemes influenced by the Chilean model (Gill, Packard, & Yermo, 2005; Kritzer, 2005). ? Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email  protected] du (E. Calvo), [email  protected] edu (J. B. Williamson). 0890-4065/$ – see front matter  © 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi:10. 1016/j. jaging. 2007. 02. 004 On the opposite side of the earth, China is following a similar path, though the Chinese IRAs are currently publicly managed and remain largely unfunded (Jackson & Howe, 2004). Since 1995 China has introduced a number of reforms, the most important of which were promulgated in 1997 and 2000. By 2025, one quarter of the world's population aged 60 and over will be living in China (United Nations, 2005).For this reason the success or failure of the reform of China's old-age pension system will affect a major proportion of the world's elderly population (Williamson & Shen, 2004). In many respects the reforms in China have not been working out as had been intended. The major problems faced by the old-age pension reform in Latin America appear again in the newly introduced reforms in China. These problems include low coverage and compliance rates, poor transparency, and serious fiscal difficulties. E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 5 Our analysis tries to obtain insights about the potential consequences of reforms currently being introduced in China based on evidence from eight Latin American countries – Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay – that introduced some form of funded IRAs (partial privatization) between 1981 and 1998. Four other countries – Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, and Nicaragua – are not included because their reforms are so new, because they are not yet fully implemented, or due to the lack of information.Many differences can be found between the Latin Ameri can countries, and perhaps even more between them and China. For example, Latin American countries have undergone a variety of political regimes, but none of them has been close to Chinese communism. Differences acknowledged, our analysis emphasizes the major cultural and economic factors shared by the countries analyzed. We argue that the eight selected Latin American countries and China are strong traditional cultures and low-income economies characterized by the centrality of: (1) the family, (2) reciprocal relationships, (3) rules of loyalty, and (4) poverty.Our analysis highlights the role of these factors in shaping the unfolding of the pension reform process with respect to four areas: (1) coverage, (2) compliance, (3) transparency, and (4) fiscal stability. The role of the cultural and economic factors considered in this article has been largely overlooked in the literature on pension reform. Much of this literature focuses on political factors, such as the welfare state, co mmunism, and the World Bank policies (e. g. Esping-Andersen, 1996; Fox, 1997; Frazier, 2004; Myles & Pierson, 2001).In this article our focus is on Latin America and China, but we find it essential to make some comparisons with the Western European nations. The latter will be characterized as rationalized cultures and affluent economies displaying centrality of: (1) the institutions supporting elderly, (2) individual financial planning, (3) legality, and (4) wealth. Although a detailed analysis of Western European countries is beyond the scope of this paper, the comparison has important advantages.A comparative perspective calls attention to the factors shared by Latin America and China. In addition, the Western European nations constitute a reference point that can be used to provide all observers with a common frame through which to assess the pension reform in Latin America and from which to speculate about some of the challenges China will face in connection with pension changes currently being implemented. But above all, the comparison to Western European nations helps to uncover some of the nderlying assumptions of these pension reforms that do not entirely hold for Latin America and China. In a somewhat oversimplified formulation, these assumptions are: (1) preeminence of formal-institutional support systems of the elderly, (2) emphasis on individual responsibility for financial planning, (3) zealous attachment to the law, and (4) perception of old-age poverty as an isolated problem. Formulated in a more general way, we will argue that the reforms fail to account for some of the major cultural and economic characteristics shared by Latin America and China.Fig. 1 and Table 1 provide a brief summary of a number of key points that we have briefly introduced above, but more importantly they also serve as guide to much of the analysis which follows. 2. Modernization pathways Population aging and with it the associated problems of reforming the old-age pensio n systems are taking place around the world. However, the challenge of pension policy reform is context-specific. In Latin America and China, this challenge is framed in the context of a traditional culture and low income economy.This claim should be understood in relative or comparative terms: Latin America and China contrasted to the Western European nations. In this section we will use the construct â€Å"modernization pathway† to describe broad historical transformations of the culture and the economy that precede the old-age pension reform and are common to a number of countries. We will consider two modernization pathways, one that fits a number of Western European nations and a second which better fits China and Latin America. Both can be viewed as Weberian ideal types (Weber, 1949, 1958).They are not meant to correspond to all of the characteristics of any particular country, but rather to highlight common elements that play an important role in the pension policy ref orm acceptance and effectiveness. The Western Pathway is limited here to the Western European countries, though it may be – carefully – extended to a few Western countries outside Western Europe. Southern European countries (e. g. Spain, Portugal and Italy) are more culturally similar to Latin America and for this reason were excluded from the pathway described here.The United States was also excluded because its exceptionalism adds unnecessary complexity to the typology (Lipset, 1996). However, the United States shares many characteristics of the Western European nations and is also influencing the pension reform in Latin America and China, as proponents of 76 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Fig. 1. The challenge of population aging for the pension system has come through dissimilar modernization pathways. world system and dependency theories have pointed out repeatedly (Wallerstein, 2004).Culture is one important domain wh ere the Pathway of Latin America and China differs from the Western Pathway (Fig. 1). Latin America and China are both facing the challenge of population aging for their pension systems in the context of much stronger traditional cultures than found in the West. The Western Pathway, in contrast, is characterized by a deeply rationalized culture. According to Max Weber (1968) the process of rationalization tends to foster and to be associated with secularization and the view that everything is explainable by reason, at least in principle (Giddens, 1971; Kalberg, 1994; Lash & Whimster, 1987).In behavioral terms, rationality involves a second meaning: greater reliance on means-ends calculations designed to organize activity so as to more efficiently reach a particular goal. One indicator of the level of rationalization in a society is a strong and uncorrupt formal legal system which fosters a social order based in large measure on laws, not just traditional cultural practices. Fig. 2 s uggests that corruption levels are lower in Western European countries than in China and in most Latin American countries.Although a traditional culture may have a formal legal system, the social order may be less based on these laws than in Western countries (Sandholtz & Taagepera, 2005; Treisman, 2000). In China, for example, if there is a dispute between two families, rather than engage lawyers and courts, people may turn to spirit-mediums, respected in the community, familiarized with the parties involved and local history, and thus qualified to suggest solutions that are acceptable to both sides (Adler, 2002).Such evidence suggests that China and Latin America have not undergone as profound a rationalization process as have the Western European nations. Economy is a second important domain where the Pathway for Latin America and China differs from the Western Pathway (Fig. 1). In contrast to Western countries, Latin America and China are also facing the challenge of rapid popul ation aging before reaching high levels of national income. Despite rapid economic growth since the early 1980s, China is still a poor country.In 2001, more than 16% of the Chinese population was living on less than one dollar per day (World Bank, 2003). In Latin America, one-fifth of the total population lives in extreme poverty and almost half in poverty (ECLAC, 2004). Fig. 3 illustrates the recent trends in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of the Western Pathway in comparison to the trends for China and Latin America. While this data covers a very recent time period, it is consistent with and lends support to the Weberian idea that in Western Europe the rationalization process is followed by a prosperous capitalist economic development.Summing up, only after becoming rational and affluent societies do the Western countries start facing the challenge of a rapid population aging and the associated need for pension system reform. Clearly this is not the case of Latin America and China, which have Table 1 Modernization pathways and areas of challenge for old-age pension system reform China and Latin America1 Family (xiao) Reciprocity (chung) Loyalty (zhong) Poverty 1 Western Countries Institutions Individual Planning Legality Wealth Old-age pension reform Coverage Compliance Transparency Fiscal stabilityThe pinyin system of Romanization has been used for Chinese terms for Confucian virtues. E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 77 Fig. 2. Western countries are perceived as less corrupt than China and Latin America (Transparency International, 2005). much stronger traditional cultures and have not yet reached the Western European level of economic development (Fig. 1). However, these distinctive characteristics have received little attention in the design of pension reforms or in efforts to evaluate the efficacy of these reforms in Latin America and China (Gill et al. 2005; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2005; Wil liamson & Deitelbaum, 2005; World Bank, 1994, 1997). Many have argued that religion is one of the most important factors explaining the differences between Western Europe and China and Latin America (Cousino 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984; Weber , 1951, 1963, 2002). Chinese Confucianism and Latin American Marianism – the Catholic adoration of the Virgin Mary – have been said to lack the elements central to the Protestant ethic that would bring about an early and profound rationalization process and capitalist development.Max Weber posed the question: why did the modern West develop the way it did, and why did China not develop at the same time and in the same way as the West? He focused on a number of factors that distinguish European modernization from that of China arguing, for Fig. 3. The western pathway is characterized by wealth (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005). 78 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74– 87 example, that Western European countries were characterized by the separation of the productive enterprise from the household, while China was organized on the basis of extended kinship clans (Weber, 1961).But the most important difference Weber (1951, 1963, 2002) highlights is that between European Protestantism and Chinese Confucianism. Protestantism is based on an ethic that prompts an active attitude to change the world and places an emphasis on the individual. Confucianism is an ethic of adjustment to the world; it accepts things as they are and promotes a contemplative, mystical and passive attitude that tends to prolong ancient traditions. In this sense, Confucianism lacks the active tension that exists between Protestant religion and the world.That is, it lacked a â€Å"mentality† or â€Å"moral energy† suited for the early emergence of modern capitalism and a rationalized social order. Similarly to Weber's comparison of Confucianism to Protestantism, Latin American Sociologists contrast Marianism with Protestantism (Cousino, 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984). The â€Å"ethic† of Marianism is that of grace and mercy rather than individual merit and responsibility. Mary is viewed as a mother-like figure with compassionate attitude towards offenders and willingness to grant favors. She recompenses devotion with clemency and unmerited divine concessions.Accordingly, Marianism – as is the case with Confucianism – lacks the â€Å"moral energy† that would bring about a profound rationalization process and early capitalist development. Note that this is an historical argument. Hence, we are not arguing that China or Latin America can not develop (or will not at some point in the future) a rationalized culture or modern capitalism; rather, we are arguing that they did not do so before and in the same way as the West. Actually, between the 1960s and 1980s, Latin America and China were actively trying t o rationalize their cultures, though the results of these efforts were modest.The rationalization efforts in China and Latin America were driven by the desire to emulate the Western countries and not the same differentiated culture that drove the rationalization process in Western Europe. We will use the term â€Å"differentiated culture† to refer to a culture in which people are confronted with conflicting world views (e. g. , Protestant vs. Catholic) and contrast it with a traditional culture in which everyone shares basically the same world views and assumptions.A differentiated culture was found on Western Europe during the sixteenth century, when the Protestant Reformation and related religious controversies split the traditional Catholic unity of the region. A differ- entiated culture does not provide an adequate level of social integration and requires the creation of rational arrangements to assure social order (Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994). In Latin America and China the rationalization effort took place in the context of a less differentiated culture and as a result the rationalization process has been less pervasive in these regions than in West.For example, during the Cultural Revolution (1966– 1976) the traditional culture was harshly attacked in China: temples were destroyed and Confucianism was declared an outdated ideology and popular religion mere superstition. However, starting with the 1980s there is widespread evidence of a strong revival of traditional religious practices and beliefs (Adler 2002; Lagerwey, 2004; Overmyer, 2003). Temples are being re-built and devotion to local deities continues to thrive. Festivals, rituals, dances, processions, communication with supernatural beings, fengshui, and popular medicine are now part of ordinary life for any Chinese people. Altars for ancestors and patron deities are found in many households. Confucianism remains at the core of the cultural unity of China, albeit more as an ethical philosophy or system of thought than as a formal religion. Similarly, Latin America has not experienced the level of cultural differentiation found in Western Europe. Latin American Sociologists argue that Latin American culture remains integrated by the values and norms underlying â€Å"Marianism† (Cousino, 1990; Cousino & Valenzuela, 1994; Morande, 1984).Just to remind, these claims should be understood in comparative terms: Latin America and China are strong traditional cultures relative to the West. It is also important to note that numerous factors other than religion may have influenced the modernization pathways. However, describing these factors goes beyond the scope of this article. The point that we want to stress here is the disparity between the modernization pathways of China and Latin America as opposed to Western Europe.To summarize, for the countries under consideration there is a difference in the type of cultural and economic transformations that have preced ed the challenge of rapid population aging and the associated need for pension reform. There has also been a difference in the timing of these processes. While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, next economic modernization, and then faced the challenges of population aging and pension policy reform, both Latin America and China are dealing with these challenges in the context of much less developed economies and stronger traditional cultures (Fig. ). E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 79 3. Pension reform in low-income traditional societies Latin America and China both have traditional cultures and low-income economies. As defined here, a â€Å"traditional culture† is organized around three principles: family, reciprocity, and loyalty. In comparison, a â€Å"rationalized culture† is organized around institutions, planning, and legality. In this case the traditional cultures are also low-incom e economies characterized by poverty while the rationalized cultures are developed economies characterized by ealth (Table 1). Note that the separation of traditional and rational does not imply that traditional cultures are irrational. Conflicting principles can coexist in the same culture, but typically one has preeminence over the other. Drawing evidence from Latin America, in this section we argue that the modernization pathway preceding the aging challenge in China will shape the challenge to the old-age pension system reform in four interrelated areas: coverage, compliance, transparency, and fiscal stability (Table 1).Coverage: old-age pension institutions and family The effects of the pension reform on coverage rates in Latin America have been largely discussed in previous literature (Arenas de Mesa, 2000; ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). There is not much agreement about what measure of coverage should be used. Howeve r, regardless of the indicator used, for most of the countries analyzed a substantial fraction of the popula- tion is left without coverage (Table 2).For a detailed discussion of the reason for the discrepancies between these various indicators see Rofman (2005). As with Latin America, a large fraction of the Chinese population is left without coverage. About two-thirds of Chinese workers live in rural areas and in those areas only about 11% of these workers are covered by a formal-institutional pension system. Coverage goes up to 55% of the workforce in urban areas, although even this level of coverage is insufficient by Western standards. Overall, three out of four Chinese workers have no pension coverage at all (Jackson & Howe 2004).It is generally agreed by most Chinese policymakers that it is not feasible at this point in time to extend coverage by the formal-institutional old-age pension institutions to the vast Chinese rural population, despite the high level of rural old-age poverty (Williamson & Shen, 2004). Based on analogous pension reform efforts in a number of Latin American countries, it does not seem likely that current reform efforts in China are going to substantially increase coverage any time soon (Arenas de Mesa, 2000; ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). Today most Chinese rely heavily on family networks for support. According to the 2000 census data, about two-thirds of those age 65 and over live with their children (Table 3). This tendency is particularly strong for elderly women living in rural areas. The lack of formal-institutional pension coverage for most elderly Chinese and the evidence from Latin America suggesting that coverage may not substantially increase any time soon, leads us to the conclusion that in ChinaTable 2 In Latin America pension system reform has left a substantial fraction of the population without coverage a Country Coverage before the reform Coverage after the reform Contributors/economically active population (year) Chile Argentina Mexico Uruguay Colombia Peru El Salvador Bolivia a b Other indicators of coverage after the reform Contributors/economically Contributors/employed Contributors/wageBenficiaries/population active population b (2002) persons b (2000–2003) earners b (2000–2003) age 65+ c (2000–2003) 0. 58 0. 26 0. 33 0. 45 0. 18 0. 12 0. 22 0. 11 0. 63 0. 40 d 0. 39 0. 65 d – 0. 14 0. 32 0. 11 0. 77 0. 55 d 0. 2 0. 79 d – 0. 31 0. 53 0. 29 0. 64 0. 68 d 0. 19 0. 87 d 0. 19 0. 24 0. 15 0. 15 0. 64 (1980) 0. 50 (1994) 0. 37 (1997) 0. 32 (1997) 0. 32 (1993) 0. 31 (1993) 0. 26 (1996) 0. 12 (1996) Adapted from AIOS, 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2005; and Rofman, 2005. These measurements could overestimate coverage for workers doing sporadic contributions, or underestimate coverage for workers not doing contributions but covered by non-contributory pensions. c This measurement could underestimate coverage for sp ouses of beneficiaries, for individuals who continue working and delayed the benefits, and individuals receiving non-contributive benefits. Information for urban areas. 80 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Table 3 The majority of Chinese elders live with their children1 Rural Urban Rural-urban combined Males Living alone 8. 7 7. 7 8. 4 With spouse only 26. 3 33. 7 28. 8 With spouse and other, not with children 0. 7 0. 8 0. 7 With spouse and children 36. 5 39. 0 37. 4 With children, not with spouse 25. 6 16. 8 22. 6 With others, not with spouse and 1. 9 1. 3 1. 7 children Institution 0. 3 0. 7 0. 4 Grand total 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Subtotal of living with spouse 63. 73. 5 66. 9 Subtotal of living with children 62. 1 55. 8 59. 9 Females Living alone 9. 8 12. 4 10. 7 With spouse only 17. 9 21. 3 19. 1 With spouse and other, not with children 0. 3 0. 6 0. 4 With spouse and children 22. 8 21. 7 22. 4 With children, not with spouse 48. 1 42. 6 46. 2 With others, not with spouse and 0. 9 1. 0 0. 9 children Institution 0. 2 0. 4 0. 3 Grand total 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Subtotal of living with spouse 41. 0 43. 6 41. 9 Subtotal of living with children 70. 9 64. 4 68. 7 1 of the family in the Latin American culture.There is no reason to expect a different outcome in China. The Confucian ethic of filial piety (xiao) involves respect, obedience, gratitude and the obligation to reciprocate for parents having given us life and, in comparison to the Western countries, this ethic remains very strong in China (Gu & Liang, 2000; Sung, 2000). It has been motivating children to take care of their elderly parents for centuries and will probably continue to play a role for care for the elderly long into the future (Zeng & Wang, 2003), though increasingly in combination with formal old-age pension institutions.The assumption made by some analysts that the family support system is going to break down places the Chinese case into a conceptual fram ework better suited to the Western Pathway. But that framework overlooks the fact that China continues to be a traditional culture and it limits policymakers to considering individualized ways to support retirees, relegating the family network of support to a secondary role in the policy debate about the reform. Compliance: individual financial planning and reciprocity Closely related to the coverage problem are low compliance rates and low contribution densities.One goal of the pension reform in Latin America has been to improve incentives for workers to participate in the system and to increase personal contributions to their funded accounts. A strengthened â€Å"equivalence principle† (a linkage between contributions and pension benefits) was expected to get workers to view their contributions as investments or savings rather than as a tax. This in turn was expected to increase the incentive for participating and contributing to the system (World Bank, 1994).However, the e vidence from Latin American does not point to any such trend (Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002; Rofman, 2005). Evidence presented in Table 4 shows that compliance rates have actually decreased in Latin America suggesting that IRAs are not having the expected impact on the incentive to contribute. It is generally agreed both in Latin America and in China that some segments of the population are particularly reluctant to contribute.For example, workers in rural areas, workers in the informal sector of the economy, and low-wage workers choose savings options other than IRAs, such as housing and the education of their children (ECLAC, 2006; Gill et al. , 2005; Kritzer, 2000; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2001; Rofman, 2005). Living arrangements for Chinese population aged 65 and over, rural urban comparison, year 2000. Adapted from Zeng & Wang, 2003. family support is likely to remain the primary source of old-age security during the foreseeable fu ture, at least in rural areas, where there is virtually no pension coverage.On the other hand, the projected demographic change for China gives us reason to questions the efficacy of the traditional family support system for meeting the economic needs of tomorrow's Chinese elderly (Gubhaju & Moriki-Durand, 2003; Zeng & Wang, 2003). In 1970, the Chinese elderly were outnumbered by children six to one, but by 2040 there will be two elderly people for every child (UN 2003). This projected demographic change will place great strain in the traditional family support system and suggests that the need for old-age pensions is going to be increasing.It is clear that the Chinese elderly will not be able to rely solely on family arrangements (Friedman, James, Kane, & Queisser, 1996; World Bank, 1997). Nonetheless, it is also true that family support networks will continue to play a very important role for many of the elderly. Examination of recent pension reform efforts in Latin America sugges t that the family performs a crucial function as a source of support and protection for the elderly, given the limited coverage of the pension system in the region (ECLAC, 2004) and the centrality E.Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Table 4 Compliance rates have declined in Latin America a Country Argentina Bolivia Chile Colombia b El Salvalor Mexico c Peru Uruguay 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 48. 9 – 52. 8 – 67. 2 63. 4 45. 6 67. 4 44. 3 – 53. 4 51. 6 63. 8 60. 2 45. 7 58. 7 39. 1 – 50. 9 48. 5 53. 5 57. 9 41. 7 53. 9 29. 0 47. 0 53. 7 48. 7 53. 2 44. 7 41. 2 53. 2 33. 2 46. 9 51. 0 47. 6 47. 6 41. 7 39. 4 45. 1 35. 2 39. 0 51. 9 48. 7 46. 3 39. 3 41. 9 52. 7 35. 4 44. 9 50. 4 49. 5 41. 9 38. 39. 9 52. 5 40. 3 47. 5 51. 2 50. 6 39. 5 37. 6 36. 2 55. 7 81 a Percentage of affiliates who contributed in the past month to IRAs, December 1998–2005. Source: Mesa-Lago, 2005; and AIOS, 2005. b In 1993†“2003 contributor was an affiliate who had at least one contribution in the last six months. c In 1993–2003 contributor was an affiliate who had at least one contribution in the past two months. Why might these groups avoid contributions to a reformed old-age pension system if it is clearly strengthened with respect to the equivalence principle?We will focus on explanations connected to the modernization pathway preceding the reform. One potential explanation is that individuals are â€Å"irrational†; not contributing to the IRA reveals a myopic behavior or short planning horizon (Valdes-Prieto, 2002). Here we offer an alternative explanation: the preference for the education of one's children and housing over IRAs is a â€Å"rational† behavior for an individual in a traditional culture and in a low-income economy, where the family is a strong social unit organized around reciprocity and affected by poverty.What is considered rational in Latin America and Chin a may not be considered rational from the perspective of the Western Pathway. Numerous studies in Latin America conclude that contributing to the IRAs is too costly, particularly for low-income workers who struggle to meet immediate basic needs for survival and face the pressing consumption needs of their families (Barr & Packard, 2000; Gill et al. , 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Kritzer, 2000; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Packard, 2002). In Fig. 4 we present aggregate data that points to a similar trend.We see that compliance rates tend to increase as GDP per capita increases, despite evidence of some variation between nations in similar GDP per capita ranges (e. g. Mexico versus Uruguay). At the cultural level, contributing to an IRA could disrupt the cycle of reciprocity inside a family. By investing in housing and childhood education, wealth is shared and transferred among generations in a permanent cycle of giving, receiving, and returning (Bataille, 1998; Mauss, 1967), a dynamic that ass ures family support at older ages.Summing up, in a lowincome economy and a culture where reciprocity has primacy over individual financial planning, a strengthened equivalence principle is likely to have little impact on a worker's propensity to contribute to the system. As with Latin-Americans, the Chinese are severely affected by poverty and tend to show a lack of enthusiasm for IRAs (Zhao & Xu, 2002), but support for the principle of reciprocity inside the family (Bengston & Putney, 2000; Gu & Liang, 2000; Sung, 2000). Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that a stronger equivalence principle is an insufficient incentive for Chinese workers to contribute.Two caveats should be mentioned when assessing ways to increase compliance rates in China. First, while the value placed on reciprocity is associated with what we call an â€Å"ethic of family savings† in China, in Latin American it occurs within an â€Å"ethic of ritual spending of wealth† (Cousino, 1990; Cou sino & Valenzuela, 1994; Fig. 4. Coverage is larger in wealthier countries (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005; Transparency International, 2005). 82 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Morande, 1984).In Latin America, reciprocity is extended beyond the family to God and nature. For example, a profuse harvest is comprehended as a gift of nature or a favor from God. The spontaneous reaction of people is to greet the benefactor with sacrifices or to spend part of the wealth received in a celebration. The popular belief is that human efforts cannot succeed without luck or divine support. This belief is confirmed in Latin American semantics, where the concepts â€Å"earning† and â€Å"winning† are indistinct: you win a wage as you win a lottery.This example illustrates Latin Americans' predisposition to spend and share wealth as if it were a prize. Individual financial planning is not based on this type of reasoning where wealt h is often attributed to God or the earth. Such behavior is more typical in cultures that attribute the origin of wealth to human work. In Chinese culture this link seems to be stronger, perhaps because land is more highly regulated and is perceived as a particularly scarce resource.The Chinese more readily save wealth than Latin-Americans, though savings may be for children's prosperity and perpetuating the principle of reciprocity. Even Chinese individuals living in foreign countries, where changes in the family support patterns are more prevalent, tend to sacrifice part of their personal gain for the well-being of their family (Lan, 2002; Wong, Yoo, & Stewart, 2006). The fact that the equivalence principle could be strengthened a lot more in China constitutes a second caveat when assessing ways to increase compliance rates (Dorn, 2004; Zhao & Xu, 2002).China has formally based its old-age pension system reform, at least in part, on funded IRAs; but in actual practice these IRAs a re often closer to the NDC (notional [or unfunded] defined contribution) model than to the funded defined contribution model (Williamson & Deitelbaum, 2005). The NDC model (also referred to as the Non-Financial Defined Contribution model) is explicated in detail elsewhere (Holzmann & Palmer 2006; Williamson, 2004; Williamson & Zheng, 2003).IRAs have been set up and a record is being kept of what has been contributed, but the government routinely diverts money from IRAs to pay pensions to the currently retired. The discrepancy between pension policy as described in government documents and what happens in actual practice, has the unintended effect of contributing to distrust and discouraging both participation and compliance. Fig. 5 suggests that transparency and credibility (high CPI scores) are associated with higher compliance rates.Corruption levels in China are similar to those of Argentina and Peru, and most likely have a negative effect on compliance rates. Transparency: legal ity and loyalty The privatization reforms in Latin America were designed to provide pension systems with a high degree of resistance to political manipulation (World Bank, 1994). However, the economic crisis in Argentina that started in the late 1990s has been attributed in part to the deficit created by the old-age pension reform and poor management of the funds (Bertranou, Rofman, & Grushka, 2003; Matijascic & Kay, 2006; Mesa-Lago, 2004).Argentina deferred its debt by selling bonds to the fund management companies. This risky behavior illustrates that the new funded systems are not immune to political manipulation and that it is important to invest in asset classes other than just government bonds. The Fig. 5. Coverage is larger in countries with better CPI score (less corrupt) (International Monetary Fund (IMF), 2005; Transparency International, 2005). E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 83 case of Bolivia is another good example.Loose reg ulations led to fraudulent interpretations of the rules for the transition, contributing to higher than expected costs (Dowers, Fassina, & Pettinato, 2001; Escobar & Nina, 2004; Gill et al. , 2005). On the other hand, Chile's better coverage can be attributed, at least in part, to its lower level of corruption. Fig. 2 shows the disparity in levels of corruption between Chile and other Latin American countries. Chile has a CPI score closer to Belgium and France, while Argentina and Bolivia have the lowest scores.China also has low CPI scores; this may foreshadow problems with corruption in the funded component of the Chinese pension system. As discussed earlier, a strong and clean legal system is an indicator of rationalization. A rationalized set of laws is needed when traditional behaviors are unable to provide sufficient social order. In traditional cultures, â€Å"loyalty† upholds order to a greater extent than â€Å"legality† and leads people to provide favors and preferential treatment to friends or relatives.When a morality based on personal relationships and favors is extended to public institutions, such as the pension system, corruption is a high risk (corruption is a judgment made from the reference point of legality). Accordingly, in a traditional culture, the shift from family support to the support of a formal-institutional pension system – either with or without IRAs – is prone to corruption. China is particularly vulnerable to corruption for several reasons (Sandholtz Taagepera, 2005).First, loyalty (zhong) is a longstanding Confucian virtue that permeates all social relationships (Adler, 2002). Second, mechanisms that facilitate regulation and supervision of the pension system have been slow to emerge (Holzmann & Hinz, 2005). Third, funds are typically invested with low public transparency in a context where there is too much money for too few opportunities (Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Williamson & Shen, 2004). Fourth, th e money is collected, administered, and owned by the government (Dorn, 2004; Jackson & Howe, 2004; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005).Consequently, separating these roles, diversifying the investment opportunities, carefully establishing and legitimating the regulatory system, creating technical organizations of supervision, and enabling greater public access to information about fund management are all much needed steps in Chinese pension reform. Fiscal stability: economic growth and poverty reduction One of the major political selling points for the partial privatization of pension schemes has been governments' difficulty with financing the increasing pension burden associated with prior PAYG defined benefit schemes.Therefore, the fiscal stability of the new systems is fundamental to the credibility of the reforms (Dowers et al. , 2001; Gill et al. , 2005). In Latin America the fiscal burden has remained substantial, though it may have been even higher, particularly in future decades, without recent reforms. The shift to partial privatization typically calls for some form of â€Å"double payments†: payments associated to the new system, but also payments recognizing benefits and contributions for those participating in the old system (Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Mesa-Lago, 2000).The transition costs associated with these reforms have typically turned out to be much larger and are currently projected to last much longer than had originally been expected. Permanent costs may also increase: low rates of compliance could force the government to aid more people than initially anticipated through the minimum pension guarantee and social assistance pensions. For the region as a whole the cost of social security and social assistance taken together increased from 5. 2% of the GDP in 1990–1991 to 7. % in 2002–2003 (ECLAC, 2006). These costs are likely to be high in China as well. Fiscal difficulties have been a problem affecting the Chinese old-age pension syst em since the 1980s (Jackson & Howe, 2004; Whiteford, 2003; Williamson & Deitelbaum, 2005). Previously, State-Owned-Enterprises (SOEs) were responsible for providing pensions to their retired employees. In the 1980s the finances of the SOEs became deeply strained by the transition to a market economy and the governments' decision to stop subsidizing them.Without government support and with a declining number of workers, SOEs faced serious difficulties in providing pensions for their former workers. In response to this problem, the Chinese government has called for municipal pooling of pension obligations and contributions. This reform largely shifted the financial crisis from SOEs to the municipalities. With the 1997 reforms, the pension burden, previously shifted from the SOEs to the municipalities, was in part returned to the central government.China's long history of fiscal problems in its pension system and the evidence of pervasive fiscal problems associated with the new privati zation related reforms in Latin America suggest that the pension related fiscal burden will continue to be a major challenge for pension reformers in China. China's weak fiscal situation in the years preceding recent reforms raises concerns about how the nation will deal with the impending cost of the transition. Fig. 6 illustrates the fiscal situation of Chile, Argentina, and 84 E. Calvo, J. B. Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 Fig. 6.The fiscal strength prior to the reform is key to overstep its costs. China in the years preceding the privatization related reforms. Argentina dramatically underestimated the cost of the transition, and during its recent economic crisis paid a heavy price for this mistake. In Chile the transition cost was also very high (about 5. 7% of annual GDP during the 1980s and 1990s), but the general fiscal surplus was very helpful in dealing with this burden (Gill et al. , 2005; Mesa-Lago, 2000). Fig. 6 shows that China is in a comp aratively weak position to handle the fiscal pressures of the reform.Finding a way to finance the pension system is a problem for most countries around the world, but this problem becomes particularly acute for low-income countries, such as China and those in Latin America. However, there is an important difference between China and Latin America. The Chinese government has called for a new pension system that is based in part on funded IRAs, but due to lack of alternative ways to raise the money needed to pay promised pensions to those who are currently retired, these â€Å"funded† accounts are today for the most part unfunded.The money has been used, typically by the local government to pay pensions to those who are already retired, leaving little more than electronic records in the accounts of individual workers specifying that they have made specific â€Å"contributions† to their account and the level of the unfunded balances in those accounts. In practice, China i s using a variant of â€Å"notional accounts† as a financing strategy for the pension system (Williamson, 2004; Williamson & Shen, 2004; Williamson & Zheng, 2003).The discrepancy between the formal structure of the program and what is actually going on must be contributing to mistrust of the government and to a lack of confidence in the pension system. It must also be reducing the incentive to contribute and increasing the incentive to evade paying into the scheme. However, there are advantages to the NDC model when properly designed as the model does help to spread the transition costs over more age cohorts and it does tend to reduce administrative costs.Low-income countries face difficulties as they try to balance the aims of fostering economic growth and poverty reduction as they reform their pension schemes. It is generally assumed that the main objective for an old-age pension system is to provide at least some financial security for the elderly. In those countries with many elderly in or at risk of poverty, the need for income redistribution becomes particularly salient. Minimum and non-contributive pensions can be used to help with redistribution and poverty reduction, but they do not maximize the equivalence principle and do increase the cost of the system (Gill et al. 2005; Holzmann & Hinz, 2005; Jimenez & Cuadros, 2003; Johnson & Williamson, 2006; Matijascic & Kay, 2006; Mesa-Lago, 2004). 4. Conclusion While numerous Western countries first experienced cultural rationalization, then economic modernization, and after that faced the challenges of population aging, both Latin America and China are dealing with pension system reforms in the context of much stronger traditional cultures and less developed economies (Fig. 1).The analysis presented in this article suggests that these distinctive characteristics have shaped the consequences of the reforms in Latin America and will likely do so in China. Specific challenges arise in the context of a tr aditional culture and a low-income economy where society is organized around the principles of family, reciprocity, loyalty, and poverty (Table 1). One of the most predictable challenges will be the coverage problem. Most Chinese elderly are not covered by formal old-age pension E. Calvo, J. B.Williamson / Journal of Aging Studies 22 (2008) 74–87 85 institutions and currently rely only on traditional family support. There is no evidence from the Latin American countries that have introduced pension reforms calling for partial privatization suggesting that coverage for the Chinese system is likely to approach universality in the foreseeable future. Therefore, the family unit, the traditional source of well-being at older ages, seems likely to continue being the major pillar of the old-age security, particularly in rural areas.However, in the decades ahead the Chinese elderly will with increasing frequency find that their families are not in a position to provide the needed sup port. The need for formalinstitutional pension coverage will be increasing rapidly in the years ahead. A key question will be whether the recent reforms calling for partial privatization will in the end undermine or strengthen traditional family networks of support and filial piety. Low compliance rates are another major challenge for China. Although incentives to contribute have improved, the current low compliance rates point to a preference for old-age security based on reciprocity (e. . investments on children's education) rather than individual financial planning. Strengthening the equivalence principle that links contributions and benefits could stimulate compliance for some. Nevertheless, those used to living in poverty, particularly in rural areas, may resist efforts to encourage individual financial planning and may prefer to sacrifice part of their modest wealth for the family. It would make sense for policy makers to adjust incentives in such a way as to take into conside ration historical, cultural, and contextual factors.Corruption and lack of transparency aggravate the coverage and compliance problems and constitute yet another challenge for the Chinese reforms. Where loyalty has primacy over legality, corruption and lack of transparency are likely outcomes. Favors are expected in a traditional culture, but such favors are considered corruption in a modern institutional context. Carefully designing, fully legitimating, and cautiously implementing the regulatory system and supervisory institutions are important steps to improve transparency and credibility.Another foreseeable challenge for the Chinese reform is the fiscal burden. How to finance the reform and to balance the objectives of economic growth and poverty reduction are major questions almost everywhere, but low-income countries such as China face additional difficulties. The empty IRAs, which were supposed to accumulate funds, are likely to increase distrust of government and of governmen t sponsored old-age security schemes. It might make sense for Chinese policy makers to introduce a system based on unfunded defined contribution accounts at least until it is clear that ational financial markets and administrative structures are ready for the demands of a partially privatized social security system. The nations in Latin America under consideration here have not succeeded with respect to coverage and compliance. In addition, transparency and fiscal stability are far from certain. This evidence suggests that without some major changes in the current policy direction, China may be headed for potentially serious pension policy problems in these four areas. The modernization pathway preceding old-age pension reform in China will likely shape the process and outcomes in these four areas.Chinese policymakers might well benefit from a close analysis of the flaws that are starting to become clear in connection with the new partially funded pension schemes that have been intr oduced in Latin America in recent years. Acknowledgments The authors acknowledge partial financial support for this project from the Center for Retirement Research at Boston College. 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